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Author: Admin | 2025-04-28
For relieving pain and for producing euphoria since at least the time of the ancient Greeks. Extracts of opium poppy were smoked, eaten, or otherwise consumed in the form of laudanum (a mixture of alcohol and opium). In 16th- and 17th-century Europe laudanum was used to treat a variety of ailments and was commonly used to treat pain and to sedate patients. In the first half of the 19th century, the pharmacologically active components of opium were isolated and characterized. The first compound to be isolated was morphine, by German pharmacist F.W.A. Sertürner about 1804. Codeine was isolated from morphine in 1832 and was found to produce much milder effects. The chemical formula of morphine was identified in 1847. oxycodoneThe semisynthetic opioid oxycodone is widely prescribed for pain relief.With the invention of the hollow hypodermic needle in 1853, morphine use became more widespread. Administration of the drug by injection was more effective than taking the same amount of the drug orally. However, the availability of morphine injections fueled abuse of the drug. In 1890 the U.S. Congress introduced a tax on opium and morphine, and in 1909 U.S. lawmakers banned opium imports. Meanwhile, however, in 1898 the German chemical and pharmaceutical company Bayer developed heroin from morphine. Heroin is 5 to 10 times as potent as morphine, and it quickly became the drug of choice for opium addicts. The addictive nature of morphine inspired researchers to develop safer synthetic substitutes, which led to the generation of opioids such as meperidine, methadone, and levorphanol. Mechanism of action and effects The pain-relieving effects of opioids are mediated by receptors located in the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. Unfortunately, the actions of opioids at opioid receptors in the brain that mediate neural pathways involved in pain relief and euphoria and that mediate so-called reward pathways that trigger feelings of pleasure also cause opioids to be extremely addictive. Over time, persons who take opioids, even when prescribed by a doctor, are at risk of developing tolerance, physical dependence, and opioid use disorder. The steady progression from tolerance to dependence and addiction,
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